while theories on its formation might suggest that petroleum is only found in areas covered by water, it must be realized that petroleum may migrate long distances under the earth 's surface. Petroleum generally has much greater mobility in rocks than it has above ground. In the rocks, it is usually under much higher pressure and can contain considerable quantities of dissolved gas, which gives the oil greater fluidity. At the same time, the temperature of the oil in the rock is higher than above ground, and that also makes the oil more fluid. Thus , even oil that under atmospheric conditions is extremely viscous can be very fluid under ground. In fact , it is only when migration is blocked and when rock sufficiently porous and permeable to serve as a reservoir is present that petroleum accumulates.

 

 

 

Reservoir rocks

 

       The remains of plants and animals from which petroleum is thought to originate were buried in the muddy floors of what were probably shallow seas, and latter overlaid with marine deposits, such as calcium carbonate and sandstone. The sediments that piled up slowly compressed the underlying materials and, by their weight, cemented the individual grains into sedimentary rock. As these rocks, most commonly mudstone and shale, were being formed, the pressure gradually forced out oily fluid, Which tended to move slowly through capillary and larger openings toward more stable conditions. The movement is generally toward the larger voids and into the more permeable rocks, such as sandstone and limestone.

 

      Both permeability and porosity are essential to the capacity of rock for storing oil. Porosity is important but does not guarantee permeability since the pores may not penetrate the rock, or they may be of insufficient size to allow the passage of oil through it. The permeability of sandstone is due to the presence of pores, or spaces of supercapillary size between the grains of sand. While that of limestone is attributable to partial dissolution of the calcium carbonate, of which it is composed, by underground water . these two rocks are our chief petroleum reservoirs.

 

Geologic traps

 

       The pores in reservoir rocks are generally filled with water. Petroleum , being immiscible with and lighter than water , tends to rise and concentrate in the upper layers of the rock. Any natural gas ( a hydrocarbon, composed substantially of methane , often found together with petroleum ) will in turn rise above the oil, so that the natural downward pattern in the reservoir will be a layer of gas, then one of oil, one of water. Since reservoir rocks must be permeable , and since the sedimentary layers in which these rocks are found are rarely horizontal, it follows that some sort of geologic barrier must be present to prevent the seepage of oil and gases to the earth's surface . these barriers are known as geologic traps , and three basic kinds are generally recognized structural, stratigraphic, and combination traps.

 

Structural traps

 

       The same complex processes through which mountains have been made have created structural traps. Great tensions below the earth's surface have fractured the rocky strata of it's crust , folded horizontal beds into ridges and hollows, and tilted great layers of rock. As such movements have occurred, various kinds of traps have been formed. Where the sedimentary layer has been pushed up locally into concave form, oil will accumulate in the upper part of what is called the dome, or anticline. Less common than the anticline is the sealing of the upper end of an inclined layer of reservoir rock. Usually , an impermeable material enters a crack made though faulting and prevents further migration of the oil.

 

Stratigraphic traps

 

      The second type of trap is caused chiefly by variations or changes within the rocky strata. Such variations most often concern the permeability of the reservoir rocks. Sand, which is obviously permeable, may have been deposited in one area , while impermeable clay was deposited all around it, forming so-called sandstone lenses.

       

      The inconsistent activity of underground water is another reason for such variations. Water precipitates cement between the grains in the sandstone , and if cementation is not uniform , some parts of the sandstone may become completely impervious , while other portions remain effective reservoirs. Of greater importance in trapping oil is varying porosity caused by the dissolving activity of underground water . when one part of a layer of limestone is more soluble than another , oil may subsequently be stored in the resulting cavities. The less soluble part of the rock remains impervious and acts as a barrier to upward movement of the oil.

 

     Another trap of this kind is caused by the gradational diminution of a rock stratum. Technically referred to as a pinchout , it consists of permeable rock tapered to thin edge and wedged between impermeable material. Similar to the pinchout , except that the permeable layer is planed rather than tapered at the edge, is still another trap, caused frequently by erosion, and resulting in the truncation and sealing of permeable layers by clay or salt. In terms of oil production, this is probably the most significant of the stratigraphic traps.

 

Combination traps

 

     These traps result from both structural and stratigraphic conditions. They are often formed by salt domes­- huge, cylindrical or conical masses of rock salt within the earth's crust. These masses originated at unknown depth and were forced upward through overlying rock strata, serving as a seal when adjacent to permeable rock. Oil thus may accumulate in the upward layers above the salt, or in the tilted rocks on the sides of the salt mass.

 

   

Abstract

A genetic disorder is an illness caused by abnormalities in genes or chromosomes. While some diseases, such as cancer, are due in part to a genetic disorders, they can also be caused by environmental factors. Most disorders are quite rare and affect one person in every several thousands or millions. Some types of recessive gene disorders confer an advantage in the heterozygous state in certain environment

Single gene disorder

A single gene disorder is the result of a single mutated gene. There are estimated to be over 4000 human diseases caused by single gene defects. Single gene disorders can be passed on to subsequent generations in several ways. Genomic imprinting and uniparental disomy, however, may affect inheritance patterns. The divisions between recessive and dominant types are not "hard and fast" although the divisions between autosomal and X-linked types are (since the latter types are distinguished purely based on the chromosomal location of the gene). For example, achondroplasia is typically considered a dominant disorder, but children with two genes for achondroplasia have a severe skeletal disorder that achondroplasics could be viewed as carriers of. Sickle-cell anemia is also considered a recessive condition, but heterozygous carriers have increased immunity to malaria in early childhood, which could be described as a related dominant condition.

Autosomal dominant

Only one mutated copy of the gene will be necessary for a person to be affected by an autosomal dominant disorder. Each affected person usually has one affected parent. There is a 50% chance that a child will inherit the mutated gene. Conditions that are autosomal dominant often have low penetrance, which means that although only one mutated copy is needed, a relatively small proportion of those who inherit that mutation go on to develop the disease. Examples of this type of disorder are Huntington's disease, Neurofibromatosis 1, Marfan Syndrome, Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer, and Hereditary multiple exostoses, which is a highly penetrant autosomal dominant disorder. Birth defects are also called congenital anomalies.

Autosomal recessive

Two copies of the gene must be mutated for a person to be affected by an autosomal recessive disorder. An affected person usually has unaffected parents who each carry a single copy of the mutated gene (and are referred to as carriers). Two unaffected people who each carry one copy of the mutated gene have a 25% chance with each pregnancy of having a child affected by the disorder. Examples of this type of disorder are cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell disease (also partial sickle-cell disease), Tay-Sachs disease, Niemann-Pick disease, spinal muscular atrophy, and Dry (otherwise known as "rice-brand") earwax.

x- linked dominant

X-linked dominant disorders are caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome. Only a few disorders have this inheritance pattern, with a prime example being X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets. Males and females are both affected in these disorders, with males typically being more severely affected than females. Some X-linked dominant conditions such as Rett syndrome, Incontinentia Pigmenti type 2 and Aicardi Syndrome are usually fatal in males either in utero or shortly after birth, and are therefore predominantly seen in females. Exceptions to this finding are extremely rare cases in which boys with Klinefelter Syndrome (47,XXY) also inherit an X-linked dominant condition and exhibit symptoms more similar to those of a female in terms of disease severity. The chance of passing on an X-linked dominant disorder differs between men and women. The sons of a man with an X-linked dominant disorder will all be unaffected (since they receive their father's Y chromosome), and his daughters will all inherit the condition. A woman with an X-linked dominant disorder has a 50% chance of having an affected fetus with each pregnancy, although it should be noted that in cases such as Incontinentia Pigmenti only female offspring are generally viable. In addition, although these conditions do not alter fertility per se, individuals with Rett syndrome or Aicardi syndrome rarely reproduce

X-linked recessive

X-linked recessive disorders are also caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome. Males are more frequently affected than females, and the chance of passing on the disorder differs between men and women. The sons of a man with an X-linked recessive disorder will not be affected, and his daughters will carry one copy of the mutated gene. A woman who is a carrier of an X-linked recessive disorder (XRXr) has a 50% chance of having sons who are affected and a 50% chance of having daughters who carry one copy of the mutated gene and are therefore carriers. Examples of this type of disorder are Hemophilia A, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, red-green color blindness, Muscular dystrophy and Androgenetic alopecia.

Y-linked

Y-linked disorders are caused by mutations on the Y chromosome. Because males inherit a Y chromosome from their fathers, every son of an affected father will be affected. Because females inherit an X chromosome from their fathers, female offspring of affected fathers are never affected.

Since the Y chromosome is relatively small and contains very few genes, there are relatively few Y-linked disorders.[citation needed] Often the symptoms include infertility, which may be circumvented with the help of some fertility treatments. Examples are Male Infertility and hypertrichosis pinnae.

Mitochondrial

This type of inheritance, also known as maternal inheritance, applies to genes in mitochondrial DNA. Because only egg cells contribute mitochondria to the developing embryo, only mothers can pass on mitochondrial conditions to their children. An example of this type of disorder is Leber's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy.

Multifactorial and polygenic (complex) disorders

Genetic disorders may also be complex, multifactorial or polygenic, this means that they are likely associated with the effects of multiple genes in combination with lifestyle and environmental factors. Multifactoral disorders include heart disease and diabetes. Although complex disorders often cluster in families, they do not have a clear-cut pattern of inheritance. This makes it difficult to determine a person’s risk of inheriting or passing on these disorders. Complex disorders are also difficult to study and treat because the specific factors that cause most of these disorders have not yet been identified.

On a pedigree, polygenic diseases do tend to “run in families”, but the inheritance does not fit simple patterns as with Mendelian diseases. But this does not mean that the genes cannot eventually be located and studied. There is also a strong environmental component to many of them (e.g., blood pressure )

    * asthma

    * autism

    * autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis

    * cancers

    * ciliopathies

    * cleft palate

    * diabetes

    * heart disease

    * hypertension

    * inflammatory bowel disease

    * mental retardation

    * obesity

در متون زرتشتی شامل اوستا ، و منابع بعدی از قبیل بندهش و دینکرد ، درباره ی ایرانیان ، خدایان آن ها ، و جهانی که آفریده اند ، اطلاعات فراوانی می توان به دست آورد .بندهش (  اساس آفرینش ) شامل ترجمه ی پهلوی ( فارسی میانه ) بخش هایی از اوستا که دیگر وجود ندارد و تفسیرهای آن (زند) است .دینکرد  خلاصه ای از اوستا به زبان پهلوی است .

● زیبایی های شگفت انگیز مدیریت و اقتصاد سلول در تنظیم بیان ژن
«مشاهده قطره آبی كه من در زیر میكروسكوپ می بینم و دورترین ستاره ای كه با تلسكوپ تماشا می كنم، مرا به حیرت و اعجاب وامی دارد، به قدری نظم و ترتیب در عالم طبیعت وجود دارد كه ممكن است برای آن قوانین محكم و ثابت وضع كرده و حكم هر پدیده را قبل از حدوثش بیان نمود. اینكه بشر عمر خود را برای كشف قوانین طبیعی صرف می كند فقط از این جهت است كه به وجود و صحت آن قوانین مطمئن است و بدون این اطمینان تفحصات علمی بی فایده می شدند. اگر فرض كنیم كه پیدایش پدیده تابع قوانین طبیعی نبوده و تابع تصادف باشند همه تجربه ها بی فایده خواهند شد. زیرا در تكرار تجربه ای معین، نتایج مختلف به دست خواهد آمد و به معلومات بشر چیزی افزوده نخواهد شد. پس در پشت این نظم باید قادر متعالی باشد چون بدون یك حكمت عالیه، وجود نظم و ترتیب امكان پذیر نیست. در همه جا قدرت خدایی مشهود است و هر قانون طبیعی كه كشف می شود با صدای بلند می گوید: «خدا واضع من است و بشر كاشف من.» » «دكتر سیسیل بویس هامان (زیست شناس)».

It was because she had broken with Billy that Loretta had come visiting to Santa Clara. Billy could not understand. His sister had reported that he had walked the floor and cried all night. Loretta had not slept all night either, while she had wept most of the night. Daisy knew this, because it was in her arms that the weeping had been done. And Daisy's husband, Captain Kitt, knew, too. The tears of Loretta, and the comforting by Daisy, had lost him some sleep.

ساقی بـه نور باده برافروز جام ما
مـطرب بـگو کـه کار جهان شد به کام ما
ما در پیالـه عـکـس رخ یار دیده‌ایم
ای بی‌خـبر ز لذت شرب مدام ما
هرگز نمیرد آن که دلش زنده شد به عشـق
ثـبـت اسـت بر جریده عالـم دوام ما
چـندان بود کرشمـه و ناز سـهی قدان
کاید بـه جـلوه سرو صـنوبرخرام ما
ای باد اگر بـه گلشـن احـباب بـگذری
زنـهار عرضـه ده بر جانان پیام ما
گو نام ما ز یاد بـه عـمدا چـه می‌بری
خود آید آن کـه یاد نیاری ز نام ما
مستی به چشم شاهد دلبند ما خوش است
زان رو سـپرده‌اند بـه مـسـتی زمام ما
ترسـم کـه صرفـه‌ای نبرد روز بازخواست
نان حـلال شیخ ز آب حرام ما
حافـظ ز دیده دانه اشکی هـمی‌فـشان
باشد کـه مرغ وصـل کـند قـصد دام ما
دریای اخـضر فـلـک و کشـتی هـلال
هسـتـند غرق نعـمـت حاجی قوام ما

پسورد: www.mihandownload.com

عامل ایجاد این تحریک، مولکول کوچکی موسوم به فنیل اتیل آمین است.این مولکول همراه با دوپامین و نوراپی نفرین میتواند یک حس نا معلوم ولی شادی آفرینی را که منجر به علاقه سیر ناپذیری می شود ایجاد کند.ولی متاسفانه در اینجا محدودیت هایی به خاطر برخی بمباران انتقال دهنده های عصبی ناشی از برخی پاسخ دهنده های کسل کننده وجود دارد.

فنیل اتیل آمین ماده ای شیمیایی طبیعی شبیه آمفتامین و دوپامین است که تجربه عالی عشق را برای ما فراهم می کند.

چیزی که توصیف عشق را مشکل می کند تلنگرهای اولیه آن در قشر جلوی مغزاست که انسان را قادر می سازد لذت بودن با شخصی خاص را ، حتی اگر تا آن زمان بک بار بیشتر او را ملاقات نکرده باشد ، برای خود پیش بینی کند. اگر این تلنگرها به اندازه کافی قوی باشند به آن ((حافظه آینده)) گویند که درگیر پاسخ به جنگ و گریزهای قدیمی قسمت جلوی مغز و مسئول رفتارهای ناخواسته ای چون لکنت زبان، عیاشی،لودگی و خنده های بلند به لطیفه های دیگران خواهد بود.اندورفینها که ساختاری شبیه به مرفین دارند بیشتر به ماده ای که می تواند در انسان احساس خوشی و شعف ایجاد کند شناخته شده اند. این مواد به عشاق ، آرامش مشابهی می بخشد ولی نه در همان لحظات اول.

اندورفینها در مراحل اولیه جذب با تحریک تک یاخته های خاصی در مغز میانی به شکل کاتالیزگر عمل کرده و آمفتامین های طبیعی قوی یعنی دوپامین و فنیل اتیل آمین را تحریک می کنند .آنها با فرمانهای خود در مغز فکر و خیال ها را طراحی می کنند ، هر فکرو خیالی را !!!!

            Neuroscience  خط مقدم و پیشروی بررسی های ذهنی و مغزی است. مطالعه مغز، سنگ بنا و اساس فهمیدن اینکه چگونه " درک می کنیم و به محیط اطراف واکنش نشان می دهیم وتجربه کسب می کنیم و یاد می گیریم " می باشد.

            مطالعات علمی سیستم عصبی در نیمه دوم قرن بیستم افزایش یافت که اساسا به انقلاب هایی در زمینه زیست شناسی سلولی ، شبکه های عصبی ، Neuroscience  محاسباتی منجر شد. بدین گونه درک فرآیند های پیچیده که در داخل یک سلول عصبی(neuron) رخ می داد و شبکه ای که سرانجام یک رفتارعقلانی ، فکری ، ذهنی ، شناخت ، ادراک ، احساسات ، هیجانات و پاسخ فیزیولوﮋی را ایجاد می کرند در جزئبات بسیار دقیق و حساس ممکن شد.

            " وظیفه Neuroscience این است که چگونگی عمل رفتار را در بخش فعال مغز بیان کند و چگونه مغز میلیون ها سلول عصبی را برای ایجاد رفتار هدایت می کندو چگونه این سلول ها تحت تاثیر محیط قرار می گیرند. آخرین حد پیشروی علم زیست شناسی – چالش نهایی آن– این است که پایه های زیستس هوشیاری و پروسه ها (فرآیند ها) که باعث می شوند ما درک کنیم؛رفتار کنیم؛بیاموزیم و به یاد آوریم را شناسایی و مشخص کنیم "

            شبکه عصبی از مجموعه نورون ها و سلول های پشتیبان ساخته شده است.نورون ها مدارها ی کارکردی را بوجود می آورند که هرکدام وظیفه مشخصی را دنبال می کنند. Neuroscience درسطح های مختلفی – سطح مولکولی ، سلولی ، سیستمی و شناسایی- مورد مطالعه قرار می گیرد.

سطح مولکولی شامل مکانیسم هایی است که نورون ها اعمال(بیان) می کنندو به سیگنال های مولکولی پاسخ داده و اینکه چگونه آکسون ها الگوهای پیچیده ارتباطی را شکل می دهند. در این سطح ، از زیست شناسی سلولی و ﮋنتیک کمک گرفته می شود که بتوان فهمید چگونه نورون ها رشد می کنند و می میرند و چگونه ﮋنتیک عملکرد زیستی آنها را تحت تاثیر قرار می دهد. همچنین مورفولوﮋی ، تشخیص مولکولی و کاراکتر های فیزیولوﮋی نورون ها وچگونگی ارتباط آنها با نقشهای مختلف یک رفتار از جمله بخش های مورد علاقه در این سطح است.

            سطح سلولی شامل مکانیسم هایی است که نورون ها سیگنال های فیزیولوﮋی و الکتروشیمیایی را تولید می کنند؛دندریت ها و آکسون ها چگونه آنها را پردازش می کنند و چگونه انتقال دهنده های عصبی و سیگنال های الکتریکی برای پردازش سیگنال در نورون ها مورد استفاده قرار می گیرند.

            سطح سیستمی شامل چگونگی شكل گیری شبكه ها و مدارها و نحوه فعالیت آنها به صورت تشریحی و فیزیولوژی برای انجام یك عمت فیزیولوژیك مثل عكس العمل های غیر عادی ،جمع آوری اطلاعات حسی ، هماهنگی های سریع ، پاسخ های احساسی ، آموزش و حافظه می باشد. به بیان دیگر مشخص می شود كه چگونه این مدارها كار می كنند و چگونه مكانیسم آن در رفتار های مشابه دیگر متفاوت می باشد.برای مثال در این سطح سوالاتی نظیر: چگونه می بینیم ؟ چگونه پرنده آوازه خوان نغمه های جدید را یاد می گیرد؟ و چگونه خفاش امواج ما فوق صوت را می شنود؟ و در كل می توان گفت كه چگونگی شكل گرفتن رفتارهای مختلف یك جانوروابسته به سیستم های پیچیده و شبكه های عصبی آن موجود است.

            سطح شناسایی شامل عملكرد روان شناسی یك موجود تحت تاثیر شبكه های نورونی است.تكنیك های آزمایشی بسیار قوی برای شناسایی بیماریها مانند fMRI , PET , SPECT  الكتروفیزیولوژی و آنالیز ژنتیكی انسان شامل این مورد می شود. نوروساینس دان ها بوسیله این متدها به پاسخ سوالاتی نظیر اینكه چگونه انسان فكر می كند و كدام بخش دستگاه عصبی مركزی در این هنگام فعال می شود ، رسیده اند.در حال حاضرنیز دانشمندان در تلاشند تا به بعضی از سوالات بسیارپیچیده ومهم كه چگونگی ارتباط مغز با محیط رانشان می دهد ، دست پیدا كنند.

            به طور كلی Neuroscience شامل مطالعات علمی سیستم عصبی است . روان شناسی و روان پزشكی نیز كه در موورد رفتارها وحالات یك انسان مطالعه می كنند ، می تواند به عنوان شاخه اصلی Neuroscience باشد.Neurobiology  نیز در بعضی مواقع به جای واژه Neuroscience به كارمی رود. این در حالی است كه  Neurobiology زیست شناسی عصب ها را بررسی می كند ولی  Neuroscience علم عملكرد سیستم بدنی است كه اساس آن شبكه ها و مدارهای نورونی است.